PID algorithm implementation (PID Controlled Line Following Robot)

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;"><a href="http://www.makeitmech.com/2017/03/pid-algorithm-implementation-pid-linefollowing-picmicrocontroller-code.html" target="_blank"><img alt="PID line following robot using pic complete code" border="0" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwzBZ16EbaCKPoo7n6Wou0l0B0tMlyuoTSh2MMtRY609WHopizsnV5OIx4Z73E8LG4LFm1LkRQQK5HbIFLqC0elCJaiOAgk9wQ8fnRzEswG0tuHrj4tMyYiJJFh950kQQCC_i2Lpc2EN8/s640/Copy+of+band+logo+%252815%2529.jpg" title="PID algorithm implementation" width="640" /></a></span></div><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span> <br /><h2><span style="font-family: inherit;">Contents:</span></h2><div><ol><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Introduction to PIC Microcontroller (PIC <span style="font-size: 12pt;">18f4550)</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Introduction to PID algorithm </span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Sensor selection</span></li><li><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">PID Controller Algorithms</span></span></li><li><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Code & Tuning</span></span></li><li><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">SCHEMETIC and simulations</span></span></li><li><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Code</span></span></li></ol></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The basic purpose of this project is to develope the understanding of PID algorithm.Some of the basic things about making robot will not be covered here.For this you have to see the robotics section about making robot and other related stuff lilke motor selection motor driver etc.the core objective is to discuss the implementation of PID control system.</span></span></div><div><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"></span><br /></span> <br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 16.0pt;">COMPONENTS:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 115%;"> </span><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"></div><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Components that we have use in building a PID base Line following Robots:<br /></span></span><br /><ol><span style="line-height: 115%;"><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">·<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">       </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">PIC microcontroller 18f4550</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">·<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">       </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">IR sensor</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">·<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">       </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">Chesses and Motor</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">·<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">       </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">LM 324</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">·<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">       </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">PID algorithm</span></span></li></span></ol><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span> <br /><h2><span style="line-height: 115%;"> <ol><li><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Introduction to PIC Microcontroller (PIC 18f4550)</span></b></li></ol></span></h2><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span> <br /><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><div style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">      There were two main alternatives regarding the choice of microcontroller: PIC18F family (specifically the PIC18F4550, due to familiarity, and it having the needed features and number of ports), or Arduino (most likely the Nano or UNO, since both have enough processing power and I/O pins for it to be unnecessary to consider the more powerful models). </span></span></div><div style="text-indent: -24px;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b style="font-family: inherit; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">          </span></span></b></span></div><div style="text-indent: -24px;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b style="font-family: inherit; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">                  </span></span></b><b style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">PIC 18f4550:</span></b></span></div><div style="text-indent: -48px;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt;"><b>            </b>The PIC18F4550 is the highest performance USB-equipped model in Microchip, INC. popular PIC18 8-bit microcontroller line. It features (Microchip, Inc. 2009b, Microchip </span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt;">Inc. 2009a):</span></span></div></div><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span> <br /><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">      </span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;">32 KB Flash Program Memories.</span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">      </span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;">A 12 MIPS CPU</span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">      </span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;">2KB RAM.</span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">      </span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;">256 byte data EEPROM</span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">   1 x A/E/USART Port</span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">     </span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;">1 x MSSP (SPI/I2C) Port</span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">      </span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;">1 x CCP & 1 x ECCP</span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">      </span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;">1 x 8-bit & 3 x 32-bit Timers</span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">      </span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;">13 x 10-bit Analog Inputs</span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">       </span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;">2 x Comparators.</span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">      </span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;">1 x USB 2.0.</span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">      </span></span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: -0.25in;">35 x Digital I/O Pins</span></span><br /><ul><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></ul><!--[if !supportLists]--></div><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span><br /><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">This microcontroller has been used extensively. It can be programmed natively in Microchip PIC assembly, or in C18, Microchip’s implementation of the C programming language for use with their PIC18 line. Due to their popularity, there exist a great number of open-source projects developed for the PIC18F line, along with libraries, tutorials, and many articles on coding and developing using these microcontrollers. They are also used to great extent professionally.</span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span> </span></span><br /><h2><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">2-</span><span style="font-family: inherit;">Sensor selection</span></span></span></h2><h2><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">IR sensor:</span></b></span></h2><div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Depending on the accuracy we have choose IR sensor.<span style="background: white;"> The basic concept of IR(infrared) is  obstacle detection by transmitting a IR signal(radiation) in a direction and  a signal is received  at the IR receiver when the IR radiation bounces back  from a surface of the object. For Ir object can be anything the IR LED transmits the IR signal on to the object and the signal is reflected back from the surface of the object. The reflected signals are received by an IR receiver. The IR receiver can be a photodiode / phototransistor or a readymade module which decodes the signal.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background: white; font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;"><a href="http://www.makeitmech.com/2017/03/pid-algorithm-implementation-pid-linefollowing-picmicrocontroller-code.html" target="_blank"><img alt=" ir sensor working" border="0" height="274" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiw-kt9k3k_KnvQ_RCeuMKRtevJit1EDLIVg54RIFFxX_a3x7ubF-YFeCshptlORCDAfjqUiXZVsBazrWrPl76dX8GUWJNxqxPp_o38XvPE7zURkZcJrekYzpoereMBRc-CMMXHJHFn2o0/s640/Capturebvyh.JPG" width="640" /></a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background: white; font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></span></div></div><div><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;"> IR Transmitter:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"> IR transmitter is modulation of the information signal with carrier signal, because the receiver modules which are available off-the-shelf are made for a particular carrier frequency. So it is clear that when you chose a particular IR receiver module, you also need to transmit the modulated wave with the same carrier frequency of that of a IR receiver module. Modulating a 38 Khz carrier signal.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>IR Receiver:</b><o:p></o:p></span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">A IR receiver with readily available off-the-shelf modules.</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">the receiver is designed for 38 kHz carrier signal; hence the IC selected should work for the same frequency. The IC TSOP4838 will serve as a receiver module, which is compatible with both TTL and CMOS logic. This means that we can directly get digital signal from the receiver module and then connect it to the microcontroller. The Implementation of IR receiver is explained using an LED as an indicator.</span></span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">3- Introduction to PID algorithm:</span></b><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"> </span></span></span></span><br /><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control is the most common control algorithm used in industry and has been universally accepted in industrial control. The popularity of PID controllers can be attributed partly to their robust performance in a wide range of operating conditions and partly to their functional simplicity, which allows engineers to operate them in a simple, straightforward manner.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /><span style="background: white;">As the name suggests, PID algorithm consists of three basic coefficients; proportional, integral and derivative which are varied to get optimal response.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background: white; font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-l6Fx82wDKXuXBSo6ow0jp45AUMHbaM7tC7qCXuj1uXaXEziYxqD3-9_uB7mT5H5kGiI2_GwIw5iPQfTWPtZtY34vH2ckfzvsLlnTxKuf2xDPQxDblWz9sHk1QNMZIqp6VsSK3q-tCkk/s1600/Captureaaaaa.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;"><img border="0" height="204" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-l6Fx82wDKXuXBSo6ow0jp45AUMHbaM7tC7qCXuj1uXaXEziYxqD3-9_uB7mT5H5kGiI2_GwIw5iPQfTWPtZtY34vH2ckfzvsLlnTxKuf2xDPQxDblWz9sHk1QNMZIqp6VsSK3q-tCkk/s640/Captureaaaaa.JPG" width="640" /></span></a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Proportional Response</span></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt;">:</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 5.2pt; mso-outline-level: 3;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt;">The proportional component depends only on the difference between the set point and the process variable. This difference is referred to as the Error term. The<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>proportional gain<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(K_c)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>determines the ratio of output response to the error signal.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 5.2pt; margin-left: 13.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-outline-level: 3;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 5.2pt; mso-outline-level: 3;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Integral Response</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 5.2pt; mso-outline-level: 3;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The integral component sums the error term over time. The result is that even a small error term will cause the integral component to increase slowly. The integral response will continually increase over time unless the error is zero, so the effect is to drive the Steady-State error to zero. Steady-State error is the final difference between the process variable and set point. A phenomenon called integral windup results when integral action saturates a controller without the controller driving the error signal toward zero</span><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 5.2pt; mso-outline-level: 3;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt;">Derivative Response:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="background: white; font-family: inherit;"> </span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 5.2pt; mso-outline-level: 3;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The derivative component causes the output to decrease if the process variable is increasing rapidly. The derivative response is proportional to the rate of change of the process variable. Increasing the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>derivative time (T_d)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>parameter will cause the control system to react more strongly to changes in the error term and will increase the speed of the overall control system response. Most practical control systems use very small derivative time (T_d), because the Derivative Response is highly sensitive to noise in the process variable signal. If the sensor feedback signal is noisy or if the control loop rate is too slow, the derivative response can make the control system unstable</span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;"><a href="http://www.makeitmech.com/2017/03/pid-algorithm-implementation-pid-linefollowing-picmicrocontroller-code.html" target="_blank"><img alt=" PID algorithm" border="0" height="350" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuXThlcZuQZRWVVxu0TUS9MgHRtDsrcNEdvnMdgdcuEwDEYC5pbGtrp1YGBqctbvunPd2-FkXz4wIljlrv84uUFp_K-ipKzFSGPltx2d9sIi8-NTnJWBH_uzAWLhkGEdTb9dAiTk5RWSk/s640/Capturecccc.JPG" width="640" /></a></span></span></div><h2 style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">4-PID Controller Algorithms:</span></span></h2></div><div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">1 In a case when robot is deviated to left it then pushes to move towards right<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">2. In ac case of deviation towards right it is forced to move towards left<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">       The accomplishment of this task gives our robot is following the zigzag path<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">       Using this method the speed we were giving was much less as error getting by using pid. And this technique was also not reliable for the turns. To apply this algorithm it was better to use the error calculation method after calculating error giving motor its proportional value and them it changes speed and in turn it gets back to the line.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">e.g.-the deviation ranges between -3 to +3.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijS6HhPPvd4fyNewDaf-c2CxGEy60yrf4P3THg2nIfdZYGVeJAPtEDAdp1scGc9uZUcLGJK6nkMJGjRIY4Obh7ZihBTu6nTQULn65yS1d04CSm39cxy2D8_efwOz3WBP7lZj-3Ik3GFAI/s1600/aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;"><img border="0" height="70" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijS6HhPPvd4fyNewDaf-c2CxGEy60yrf4P3THg2nIfdZYGVeJAPtEDAdp1scGc9uZUcLGJK6nkMJGjRIY4Obh7ZihBTu6nTQULn65yS1d04CSm39cxy2D8_efwOz3WBP7lZj-3Ik3GFAI/s400/aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa.JPG" width="400" /></span></a></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">         Kp is the proportionality constant it will give negative value when robot is be towards left of the line then the right motors gets slows down.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">This is a good practical approach for many cases. But not suitable because of these reasons<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">1. It affects accuracy of the robot when the robot is not much effective it gets back to mean position very slowly.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">2. To solve this problem we have to increase its proportionality contact but it will then overshoot when robot comes to mean position due to inertia-cross to other side then again overshoot results in deviating result.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PID Controller Algorithms:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">PID is a feedback mechanism.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">It has three components on which it works that are <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">1: error<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">2: time of deviation<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">3: overshoots<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">Efficiency of the PID algorithm is based on these three parameters these helps to reach at mean position much faster</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIQL1Q_zfBVMVjqCPMRyFF5MYgvyWGwqwmxjRecOsplIta0CA-_1D3fRNqv7KTzADl08AENz-HpY56mMpDWHNFojEGDsBvkSOCZXVtUXEjpzrWeV5J3Z7LnHwXstdMaJ8yVB28BGuRiUU/s1600/Capturebbbbbbbbbbbb.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;"><img border="0" height="123" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIQL1Q_zfBVMVjqCPMRyFF5MYgvyWGwqwmxjRecOsplIta0CA-_1D3fRNqv7KTzADl08AENz-HpY56mMpDWHNFojEGDsBvkSOCZXVtUXEjpzrWeV5J3Z7LnHwXstdMaJ8yVB28BGuRiUU/s400/Capturebbbbbbbbbbbb.JPG" width="400" /></span></a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">The three constants are set by hit and trial method experimentally.</span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;"></div><ol><li><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Kp</span></span></li><span style="line-height: 115%;"><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Ki</span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Kd</span></li></span></ol><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span> <span style="font-family: inherit;">Using only kp parameter the robot will be applied and give the results as the classical ine following algorithm discussed earlier.</span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">Ki: because of ki robot is forced to follow mean position.</span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kd: kd does not allow the robot to perform any deviation</span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie40YybcIozNijt-7Y6R6SImhjJcgGJPbZSLAne7bfe2Hvq-N3ncOsoRNY6-pk948I_-0X78QJnyjzWKrdhVpW_1vhPJFgay-YFQzhaPsMxSP7apLcm8UX_8GNeEGFDXC_bjcCWtHtoVA/s1600/asasasa.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="68" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie40YybcIozNijt-7Y6R6SImhjJcgGJPbZSLAne7bfe2Hvq-N3ncOsoRNY6-pk948I_-0X78QJnyjzWKrdhVpW_1vhPJFgay-YFQzhaPsMxSP7apLcm8UX_8GNeEGFDXC_bjcCWtHtoVA/s400/asasasa.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><h2><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Code:</span></b></span></h2></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">Given below is the code for measuring the deviation <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">‘00000001’ this means robot is towards rightmost this code works in a manner that is robot is at right the deviation will be recorded negative<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;"><a href="http://www.makeitmech.com/2017/03/pid-algorithm-implementation-pid-linefollowing-picmicrocontroller-code.html" target="_blank"><img alt=" PID algorithm implementation" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSdHGdh47NARQVkmr0-gYDBLQOrIL5Ot_YIc_L-OH4l3EENLW1Zkm2Vibu_CCnkd0lJvdwD4EXfGmyVL-Qf5Q_SZMILSS_lCq040IF0omM4ikCgyG6rBl_42pz37wQAuBMAC1zyZZnbUg/s1600/llo.JPG" /></a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">Getting these results PID then sums all the previous deviations and generates an integral called total error. The difference of the deviation is measured by derivative. The error calculated is then send to this code it will give the correction<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">These lines should run in each iteration.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUFOz_bKFZqufxNi2Pe-uo7r7PJzU8jCqDXzU6ZsKCnTpN2Oi090HKoRVzwEQJS5moXmVmItSLz_ZRZQ6qYg8i6jF9WmiyqL4m20yVScIBDqVMMQXpTvcS5Xf5Y8i3pvhB_grbbatPRQI/s1600/zz.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="121" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUFOz_bKFZqufxNi2Pe-uo7r7PJzU8jCqDXzU6ZsKCnTpN2Oi090HKoRVzwEQJS5moXmVmItSLz_ZRZQ6qYg8i6jF9WmiyqL4m20yVScIBDqVMMQXpTvcS5Xf5Y8i3pvhB_grbbatPRQI/s640/zz.JPG" width="640" /></a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><br /></span><br /><h2><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Tuning:</span></b></span></span></h2><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">PID tuning is greatly affected by the floor where it is going to be use and the track where robot is going be run and these physical parameters cannot be calculated mathematically. For example motor inductance, friction centre of mass etc. these quantities can be just guessed and applied by hit and trial method.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> Sensor circuit:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">Sensors are the array of 7 IR sensors which are connect with operational amplifier LM324 which converting the analog output of sensor into digital by comparing the threshold level of line then the digital output of opamp are given to microcontroller.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> Main circuit:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The sensor array that we have made in last lab will be connected to PORT B. the motor driver IRFZ44N is a Mosfet  we have us Mosfet due to the fact that it can drive high voltage and current is per requirement we need to have a motor driver that has capability </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">to handle high voltage and current. For the accuracy of the robot and requirement of the algorithm we selected IRFZ44N. To control the motion of the motors and to control the speed of the motors a PWM waveform with variable duty cycle is applied on the gate of the IC. The main circuit of the robot is on 18f4550 </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">which is most popular micro controller of pic micro’s having 12 bit ADC resolution 8 analog to digital pins which are used for tuning PID occupied by potentiometers 2 CCP modules which controls PWM given to motors which ultimately controls the speed of robot having 33 I/O pins in which 8 is used for reading data from sensors and 8 are used in 16x2 LCD display interface circuit. Microcontroller take decision on the base is of sensor outputs and after applying PID it controls the motion of robot by changing speed of motors accordingly.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Motor driver:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">Our motors are derived by IRFZ44N.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">IRFZ44N is a motor driver made up of mosfets. Only code is not sufficient for desired results.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">By continuously hit and trials it will effect more. It is not necessary to use all three parameters P,I and D.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">If only PI is enough it is not necessary to use derivative part.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">PID also requires settling time that is why it will also consume this time in showing accurate results.</span></span></div><h2 style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">5-SCHEMETIC:</span></span></b></span></h2><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;"><a href="http://www.makeitmech.com/2017/03/pid-algorithm-implementation-pid-linefollowing-picmicrocontroller-code.html" target="_blank"><img alt="PID line following robot circuit and complete code" border="0" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZlFH7vDA3TcYXqaR3JQGBLwBcd5SrIzCvyCM_VecMCpM17wa_fPGqAJ-fjbC9XMYlVZToYUVhf25J1rzT_sVPXqWuTQAammad8pX4MTSGHj8RsJWXN9U_mmyLFHoByLh3pUVKLiKhC58/s640/alalala.JPG" title="PID algorithm line following robot circuit" width="640" /></a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;"><a href="http://www.makeitmech.com/2017/03/pid-algorithm-implementation-pid-linefollowing-picmicrocontroller-code.html" target="_blank"><img border="0" height="291" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQa6nkcP0wTrMDQnE0nOP6HNiWHJNzJisJ6P_MYxTRJIclz2rAulvmRMJhEG_1bZv08neuTYA9CkyR0mOR59HF5mZfutUjrnx4x5trJ54KvFDuTlKCirMvpfeJRJcpqXJvHEkbsKuVhqc/s400/Captureaaaaaaaaaaa.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">Output:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">The robot is successfully following the given arena.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">Output is very much accurate and deviations are much reduced to very low level.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">Kp=50<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;">Kd=4<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt;">In this project our main focus was to cover the PID algorithm implementation.some of the sections about making robot are not included here.</span></span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: #0000ee; font-size: large; text-decoration-line: underline;"><br /></span></span></span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Below is the Code of PIC </span>micro-controller<span style="font-size: 12pt;">. Enter E-mail address to get complete code file and practice it.</span></span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Code:</span></span></span><br /><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"></span></span></span><br /><pre class="a-b-r-La a-b-ja-Eb-Vb" style="background-color: white; font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap; word-wrap: break-word;">All rights reserved www.makeitmech.com<br />PID line following Robot Code:<br /><br />#include <18f4550.h><br />#device adc=10<br />#fuses NOWDT,PUT,HS,PROTECT<br />#use delay(clock=20M)<br />#use rs232(baud=9600,xmit=PIN_C6,rcv=PIN_C7)<br />#include <lcd.c><br />\\Variable Initialization <br />char c;<br />float value,pwm1,temp,pwm2,error,preverror,totalerror,kp,ki,kd,filter0;<br />intpb,speedleft,speedright,filter;<br />charch;<br /><br />void main(void)<br />{<br />enable_interrupts(INT_RDA); //Serial Interrupt Enable <br />enable_interrupts(GLOBAL); //Global Interrupt Enable<br />setup_ccp1(CCP_PWM); // CCP1 Initialization <br />setup_ccp2(CCP_PWM); // CCP2 Initialization<br />totalerror=0; // PID LOOP Variables<br />error=0; <br />preverror=0;<br />filter0=0;<br />filter=0;<br />kp=0;<br />ki=0;<br />kd=0;<br />pwm1=0;<br />pwm2=0;</pre><pre class="a-b-r-La a-b-ja-Eb-Vb" style="background-color: white; font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap; word-wrap: break-word;"></pre><br /><pre class="a-b-r-La a-b-ja-Eb-Vb" style="background-color: white; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><b><br /></b></span></pre><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><pre class="a-b-r-La a-b-ja-Eb-Vb" style="background-color: white; user-select: text; white-space: pre-wrap; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-large;"><b><br /></b></span></pre></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><div class="mailmunch-forms-widget-468739"></div><br /></div></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div></div></div>

Electrical Concepts, Projects, Robotics

PID algorithm implementation (PID Controlled Line Following Robot)

Contents: Introduction to PIC Microcontroller (PIC  18f4550) Introduction to PID algorithm  Sensor selection PID Controller Algorithms Code...

Boost converter circuit for solenoid mechanism

<h2 style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"> Boost converter circuit for solenoid mechanism</span></h2><h2><span style="font-family: inherit;"> Introduction to booster:</span></h2><span style="font-family: inherit;">In this article we will see how to make booster.We are making booster circuit for solenoid and can be used in many projects. Here i'm going to use it for the kicker mechanism of soccer playing robot</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">For the kick we have to energize our coil and to energize the coil we needed high voltages for</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">this purpose we have designed the boost converter which convert the 12 volt into 220 volts. Our</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">boost converter circuit has main two parts first one is power circuit and the second one is the</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">pulse and gate driver circuit for mosfet.</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">For generating the frequency and to drive the gate of mosfet we have used 555 timer ic which is</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">operating in a normal a stable mode generating frequency of 15.6Khz and 12volts to open the</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">gate of mosfet IRF460.</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span> <b><span style="font-family: inherit;">Formula: F= 1/0.693xC(R𝑅2 + 2𝑅1)</span></b><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">The boost converter power circuit has inductor which is charged and discharged quickly by using</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">mosfet as a switch and capacitor is to stored charge. Our application is to charge our selonied and</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">use as a kick so by using the relay we discharge the capacitor when we give the signal from</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">microcontroller.</span><br /><h3><span style="font-family: inherit;"> List of components used in boost converter</span></h3><span style="font-family: inherit;">1) 100uH Inductor</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">2) Resistors</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">3) 1K potentiometer</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">4) 555 timer</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">5) Transistor BF454</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">6) Mosfet IRF460</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">7) Capacitors</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">8) Relay</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">9) Optocoupler</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">Calculations:</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">Vout/Vin=1/1-D</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;">Vout=220V, Vin= 12V, D=90%</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span> <b><span style="font-family: inherit;">The circuit diagram is showing in this figure:</span></b><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span> <br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_856wIQ8XU8-1vbKazNIWOolNbuGU-ORWK7q2KWrLBDU6CRPKr-1X0Ls2SJCKyIxK1Gfo6RXiq1OLvgwLJORICZ8IQhGeKGlfkPtcce7EC0a3wXeTJ0kCT_HlXV3Y_WgzeGTlxyMCB2o/s1600/rororo.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><img alt="Boost converter circuit diagram for driving solenoid.complete detail about the circuit with booster concept and theory." border="0" height="350" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_856wIQ8XU8-1vbKazNIWOolNbuGU-ORWK7q2KWrLBDU6CRPKr-1X0Ls2SJCKyIxK1Gfo6RXiq1OLvgwLJORICZ8IQhGeKGlfkPtcce7EC0a3wXeTJ0kCT_HlXV3Y_WgzeGTlxyMCB2o/s640/rororo.JPG" title="Boost converter circuit for solenoid" width="640" /></span></a></div><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span> <span style="font-family: inherit;">See the related posts of making solenoid mechanism and kicker mechanism for robot.</span><br /><a href="http://www.makeitmech.com/2017/02/how-to-make-soccer-robot-for-robocup.html">http://www.makeitmech.com/2017/02/how-to-make-soccer-robot-for-robocup.html</a><br /><br /><!-- Begin BidVertiser code --><br /><script src="http://bdv.bidvertiser.com/BidVertiser.dbm?pid=762381&bid=1871560" type="text/javascript"></script><br /><!-- End BidVertiser code -->

Electrical, Electrical Concepts, Projects

Boost converter circuit for solenoid mechanism

Boost converter circuit for solenoid mechanism Introduction to booster: In this article we will see how to make booster.We are making boos...

Motor Driver circuit L298 and IR2104 motor driver circuits with PCB layout

<h2 style="text-align: center;">L298 and IR2104 motor driver circuits with PCB layout</h2><div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">In this article we will see the circuits of motor driver with L298 and IR2104 motor driver.I have already explain about motor drivers in this post so <a href="http://www.makeitmech.com/2017/02/motor-drivers-and-dual-h-bridge-l298.html">motor-drivers-and-dual-h-bridge-l298</a> .we are not going to discuss it in details here .</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">To control the direction and speed of motor we have to use motor drivers. First we selected L298</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">motor driver and design its pcb having max current of 2A and 18volts. The ccircuit diagram is</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">shown in figure:</span></div></div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><img alt="L298 motor driver circuit diagram complete information with pcb layout" border="0" height="384" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlhTHr0TS7N9kG8OJYsMM0nyhOWYBrW11B0Mv0LU23Y64zMix2L8JvUREdc74QM_rCev1asSe6PCcVdmL1JtjxwF-7JieCHT4mKG4GN9t8zbc4u2BnqD-7hkVxo6xS7ssiNOFcxfI2KHQ/s640/messy.JPG" title="L298 motor driver circuit" width="640" /></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">These motor drivers could not bare the load of these motors because when the speed was</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">increased and it torque is increased the power of these motor increased from the rating of L298</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">driver so these drivers was not suited for these motors.</span></div></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">The PCB diagram is shown in figure below:</span></div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSicPdFoSV6nTVwhoEq4qWHnogszxgPSTyEkqbRjvYeyCUqnbyqJhZXlG2dZVEvE_h9WY1wQbEeNjRgz7eWIs7KCCv_Jhtr8CaeRkRzA2TrM6wsY9uSPCmH_mJT9D-jxaXo4DAMXJERSw/s1600/pcb.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="593" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSicPdFoSV6nTVwhoEq4qWHnogszxgPSTyEkqbRjvYeyCUqnbyqJhZXlG2dZVEvE_h9WY1wQbEeNjRgz7eWIs7KCCv_Jhtr8CaeRkRzA2TrM6wsY9uSPCmH_mJT9D-jxaXo4DAMXJERSw/s640/pcb.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">After this we made motor driver by using mosfets IRF540N full bridge and using IR2104 motor</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">driver so that these driver can bare the load of our motors and we can use our motors on fully</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">capability. The circuit is shown in figure below:</span></div></div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCGotR_VgZ2-mEvDdfw1HktyxbdiX0RthzdoRbIjMhxSdWDEC-O7OTDHdgClbY-KAweWteJyoGanW82nqnRHWKLAweucS6Nb8iAzeA3VQPd9qUWstmmnqL9r7G-O9MiLck4mbJuQAzahk/s1600/mraadil.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Motor driver circuit with IR2104 and IRF540 full bridge.complete details of the circuit with pcb layout" border="0" height="250" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCGotR_VgZ2-mEvDdfw1HktyxbdiX0RthzdoRbIjMhxSdWDEC-O7OTDHdgClbY-KAweWteJyoGanW82nqnRHWKLAweucS6Nb8iAzeA3VQPd9qUWstmmnqL9r7G-O9MiLck4mbJuQAzahk/s640/mraadil.JPG" title="IR2104 motor driver with IRF540 full bridge" width="640" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div>The layout of PCB is in figure below:</div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiieJc2vM0SZT-LWyom-k14VL3C9rfe0x-nUPz-zNy5eqZxOdEvk5lQeEVoj0AwBKHnK8HyoYSbSNlYF1ikymNF-6cRYQ6vWEtM5foSOt71I9Rtc9bjtFPVlIHtDMstKDH7tV_IlJDb7rg/s1600/dolllaa.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiieJc2vM0SZT-LWyom-k14VL3C9rfe0x-nUPz-zNy5eqZxOdEvk5lQeEVoj0AwBKHnK8HyoYSbSNlYF1ikymNF-6cRYQ6vWEtM5foSOt71I9Rtc9bjtFPVlIHtDMstKDH7tV_IlJDb7rg/s400/dolllaa.JPG" width="340" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">I hope You understand the cicuit diagram.</span></div><span style="font-family: inherit;">See the related posts for more information.follow and get the latest updates about new posts.</span><br /><div><br /></div>

Electrical, Electrical Concepts, Projects

Motor Driver circuit L298 and IR2104 motor driver circuits with PCB layout

L298 and IR2104 motor driver circuits with PCB layout In this article we will see the circuits of motor driver with L298 and IR2104 motor dr...

Sampling and Quantization the basic concept with examples

<br /><h2 style="text-align: center;">Sampling and Quantization Theory concept with Examples</h2><div></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.makeitmech.com/2017/02/sampling-and-quantization-basic-concept-examples.html" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="94" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKqB24R44DJ4cAIbPdmfsB4RQHimT8xkJIwZVMsm9EMo3wgwfY237-oySiBiWx4zYprGQJFHTV0_G1CSLkZfNtsc5siersN9jJJCT0BsPbi1b8Lj5Jcrzv1UiLdyy4Zfz3jTVLMWhYq0g/s320/quantization.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><h2 style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Contents:</span></h2><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"></div><ol><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Introduction </span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Introduction to sampling and Quantization</span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Concept of sampling</span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Concept of Quantization</span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Comparison and difference between sampling and quantizing</span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Practical Examples  </span></li></ol><h2><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Introduction:</span></h2><div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">In this section we will see one of the two techniques of digital image processing.Why there is need to sample or quantize a signal and what are the purposes of these two techniques in digital systems and image processing.</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Why to use sampling and quantzing?</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">When we have an analog output or analog signal it will have infinte values we can not figure out all these values.In other words if we have to measure or save or store these values  somewhere this could not be an easy task.if we take an example from image processing.the value of image sensor will be an analog signal.we can not store it.</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">So we have to convert an analog signal into a digital signal.</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Analog signal is a continous form of information we have to convert this data into digital form.for example for a digital image from a sensor value we have to convert this signal into digital.</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">For this purpose we have two techniques:</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"></div><ol><li>Sampling</li><li>Quantization</li></ol><h2 style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Introduction to sampling and Quantization:</span></h2><div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The process of digitizing the domain is called sampling and the process of digitizing the range is called quantization.If we take an example of sound signal or any image it has coordinates along x axis and amplitude in y axis.So the sampling deals with the digitization of coordinates and quantization deals with the digitization of amplitude.</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Most devices we encounter deal with both analog and digital signals. Digital<br />signals are particularly robust to noise, and extremely efficient and versatile<br />means for processing digital signals have been developed.</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">On the other hand, in certain situations analog signals are sometimes more appropriate or even<br />necessary. For example, most underlying physical processes are analog (or atleast most conveniently modeled as analog), including the human sensorimotor systems. Hence, analog signals are typically necessary to interface with sensors and actuators.</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><input name="IL_IN_ARTICLE" type="hidden" /><br /><h2 style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Concept of Sampling:</span></h2><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">In sampling X axis is digituzed</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">It is done on independent variable</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">In case of equation y = sin(x), it is done on x variable</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">It is further divided into two parts , up sampling and down sampling.</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Recording of an analog signal at regular discrete moments of time in sampling. The sampling rate <span class="MathJax" id="MathJax-Element-10-Frame"><span class="math" id="MathJax-Span-51"><span class="mrow" id="MathJax-Span-52"><span class="msubsup" id="MathJax-Span-53"><span class="mi" id="MathJax-Span-54">f</span><span class="mi" id="MathJax-Span-55">s </span></span></span></span></span>is the number of samples per second. The time interval between samples is called the sampling interval <span class="MathJax" id="MathJax-Element-11-Frame"><span class="math" id="MathJax-Span-56"><span class="mrow" id="MathJax-Span-57"><span class="msubsup" id="MathJax-Span-58"><span class="mi" id="MathJax-Span-59">T</span><span class="mi" id="MathJax-Span-60">s</span></span><span class="mo" id="MathJax-Span-61">=</span><span class="mn" id="MathJax-Span-62">1</span><span class="texatom" id="MathJax-Span-63"><span class="mrow" id="MathJax-Span-64"><span class="mo" id="MathJax-Span-65">/</span></span></span><span class="msubsup" id="MathJax-Span-66"><span class="mi" id="MathJax-Span-67">f</span><span class="mi" id="MathJax-Span-68">s</span></span></span></span></span>. </span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">shows an analog signal together with some samples of the signal.</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">If we let T denote the time<br />interval between samples, then the times at which we obtain samples are given<br />by nT where n = . . . ,−2,−1, 0, 1, 2, . . .. Thus, the discrete-time (sampled)<br />signal x[n] is related to the continuous-time signal by<br />x[n] = x(nT).</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.makeitmech.com/2017/02/sampling-and-quantization-basic-concept-examples.html"><img border="0" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGM-ov6506ajnGS0Fi4Bi96b9yuv1wSnP9fHUicRX80zafBFK-RGxbS_ZTAFt6pFNSArWaV5nZ2uy2WNEuXNB0oJmTRhcPPvf2mIju4za5ELYkxjrrBcr60f7p7t87I9Yel0b27Z_v1lg/s400/ssasa.JPG" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div><h3><span style="font-family: inherit;">There are 3 sampling methods:</span></h3></div><div class="O1"><ol><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Ideal - an impulse at each sampling instant</span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Natural - a pulse of short width with varying amplitude</span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Flattop - sample and hold, like natural but with single amplitude value</span></li></ol><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.makeitmech.com/2017/02/sampling-and-quantization-basic-concept-examples.html"><img border="0" height="361" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipfI2MnSi7EaKR0WKa4p77JZ5QmBrurlfSAcD1bntOZYVec7kkbWTC-ejBln9yiLpt1LEBt2vnDjHFlPk6hi8j-YqcRM7Yd8SW7zSTgqfKmd_EgBt723AdnfSid7SbRQyIao9VyJ53-1k/s640/chlaa.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><div><br /></div></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The concept of sampling is directly related to zooming. The more samples you take, the more pixels, you get. Oversampling can also be called as zooming. </span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><h2 style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">What is Quantization:</span></h2><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Quantization is opposite to sampling. It is done on y axis.</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Quantization makes the range of a signal discrete, so that the quantized signal<br />takes on only a discrete, usually finite, set of values.</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">One of the basic choices in quantization is the number of discrete quantization<br />levels to use.</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">an analog signal and quantized<br />versions for several different numbers of quantization levels. With L levels, we<br />need N = log2 L bits to represent the different levels, or conversely, with N bits<br />we can represent L = 2N levels.</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.makeitmech.com/2017/02/sampling-and-quantization-basic-concept-examples.html"><img border="0" height="290" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhmmNRmP4RZl78GPjw0UAfg3mRisd4_f9Brj5yaHHs-rTrEpynkafKIR2jpApMJwHATl96ul-t1gus2O1agP61jYg6pHOIMpFHPh0cjUnxZoqqFWBuEI2OguYHog_qWCFWYoUW_nY7crsQ/s400/woiwoi.JPG" width="400" /></a></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The simplest type of quantizers are called zero memory quantizers in which<br />quantizing a sample is independent of other samples. The signal amplitude is<br />simply represented using some finite number of bits independent of the sample<br />time (or location for images) and independent of the values of neighboring<br />samples. Zero memory quantizers can be represented by a mapping from the<br />amplitude variable x to a discrete set of quantization levels {r1, r2..., rL}.</span></div></div></div></div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.makeitmech.com/2017/02/sampling-and-quantization-basic-concept-examples.html"><img border="0" height="310" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgey8utu4WtyfElpoYy2SxtdmO16yDuOAhE4KiGmJ0w0Q-oLy16b9xTjIRbY6lCjFgQPPCR3-jiUBai1oPcxoIcKmdZwKhM9UM0rO52VngjWVg2DrOyvFYaVjaC0NNKmpStNUE50cUx8D4/s400/zero+memory.JPG" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.makeitmech.com/2017/02/sampling-and-quantization-basic-concept-examples.html"><img border="0" height="328" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiVrLMd-M6aVJXBt9ASMIgYOPEvaAzxyBmNGzu6oRp8IPiRuDKntwAwFKqe9P7xF8MFoYGptQSSwCuiKYpqvP4EPJBB1ogVohoBLXcZ5YZddXV68MoNMR74CZWYNUWjHVVfTviNe9ZjcCM/s400/yehe.JPG" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><h2 style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Difference between Sampling and Quantization?</span></h2><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"></div><ol><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">In sampling, the time axis is discretized </span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">In quantization, y axis or the amplitude is discretized.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">In sampling a single amplitude value is selected from the time interval to represent</span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">In quantization, the values representing the time intervals are rounded off, to create a finite set of possible amplitude values.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Sampling is done prior to the quantization process.</span></li></ol><br /><div><h2 style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Practical Examples:</span></h2><h3 style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Examples of Sampling:</span></h3><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"></div><ol><li>Telephone companies digitize voice by assuming a maximum frequency of 4000 Hz. The sampling rate therefore is 8000 samples per second.</li><li>A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the minimum sampling rate for this signal?</li></ol><h4>Solution</h4><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between 0 and f, where f is the maximum frequency in the signal. Therefore, we can sample this signal at 2 times the highest frequency (200 kHz). The sampling rate is therefore 400,000 samples per second.</span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><br /></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;">3. A complex bandpass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the minimum sampling rate for    this signal?</div><h4 style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Solution</span></h4><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">We cannot find the minimum sampling rate in this case because we do not know where the bandwidth starts or ends. We do not know the maximum frequency in the signal.</span></div></div><div><br /></div><div><h3 style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Examples of Quantization:</span></h3><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"></div><ol><li>We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate, assuming 8 bits per sample?</li></ol><h4 style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Solution</span></h4><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz. So the sampling rate and bit rate are calculated as follows:</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCtoBMhEv-oNhJju9nEhSe6XmATSC0dJn_vZ8fA5Ar03XBudDJ37wLvWCYySFjA8ig4hHx5tZhh1LJ5vJGMLf_SaMI9ZUjz3Fg3vvDW31KNmJVuACWLdvm8Zd8UZCr0d-rMGu6M7rGv-8/s1600/lalala.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="55" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCtoBMhEv-oNhJju9nEhSe6XmATSC0dJn_vZ8fA5Ar03XBudDJ37wLvWCYySFjA8ig4hHx5tZhh1LJ5vJGMLf_SaMI9ZUjz3Fg3vvDW31KNmJVuACWLdvm8Zd8UZCr0d-rMGu6M7rGv-8/s320/lalala.JPG" width="320" /></a></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><br /></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;">2. We have a low-pass analog signal of 4 kHz. If we send the analog signal, we need a channel with a    minimum bandwidth of 4 kHz. If we digitize the signal and send 8 bits per sample, we need a       <br />  channel with a minimum bandwidth of 8 × 4 kHz = 32 kHz.</div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><br /></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;"><br /></div><div style="height: auto !important; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; width: auto !important;">I hope you understand the basic concepts behind the theory of Sampling and Quantizing.We will see some of the concepts in details related to sampling and Quantization and the Sampling in Quantization in digital image processing in coming posts.</div><input name="IL_IN_ARTICLE" type="hidden" /><br /></div>

Electrical Concepts

Sampling and Quantization the basic concept with examples

Sampling and Quantization Theory concept with Examples Contents: Introduction  Introduction to sampling and Quantization Concept of sampling...

Integrating ADC simulation single and dual slope using op amp

<h2><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Contents:</b></span></h2><ul><li>Introduction to Integrating ADC</li><li>Single slope ADC</li><li>Dual Slope ADC</li><li>Multisim Simulation</li></ul><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://go.ad2up.com/afu.php?id=1070744"><img border="0" height="276" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh15Nmcg-Fx4ZvcQJZsLixcYZSWmaGiludvc0oPQEfvP5eOH-lL6MSrYCLNtaoWotyAnCfRqVZ7Iz-T2EO7WhV-E1vu9VDWSMHM4Q_yzI-K-FAnAU_h5FWfz3Jx-TMLxf5evv-J8WuHEco/s640/mulisi.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><ul></ul><br /><h2><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Introduction to Integrating ADC:</b></span></h2><div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Integrating analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) provide high resolution analog-to-digital conversions, with good noise rejection. These ADCs are ideal for digitizing low bandwidth signals, and are used in applications such as digital multi-meters and panel meters. They often include LCD or LED drivers and can be used stand alone without a </span>micro controller<span style="font-family: inherit;"> host.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Integrating analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) provide high resolution and can provide good line frequency and noise rejection. Having started with the ubiquitous 7106, these converters have been around for quite some time. The integrating architecture provides a novel yet straightforward approach to converting a low bandwidth analog signal into its digital representation. These type of converters often include built-in drivers for LCD or LED displays and are found in many portable instrument applications, including digital panel meters and digital multi-meters.</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 1.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 11.25pt; mso-outline-level: 4;"><h2><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Single-Slope ADC Architecture:</b></span></span></h2></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">The simplest form of an integrating ADC uses a single-slope architecture. Here, an unknown input voltage is integrated and the value compared against a known reference value. The time it takes for the integrator to trip the comparator is proportional to the unknown voltage (T</span>_{<span style="background: white; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 107%;">INT</span>}<span style="background: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">/V</span>_{<span style="background: white; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 107%;">IN</span>}</span><span style="background: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">). In this case, the known reference voltage must be stable and accurate to guarantee the accuracy of the measurement.</span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; color: #333333;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6hQJJbLWjO67DEIsJQR_oAm4MYy13VMrMB10OOlCE_El0fvp9ct2WULTYVg0MvVa7_COsObNx9wUCtLO7Z__-vTdiM7sBaDGwIg48scbz0sdg235-hp22zX1MuHZC2OGmffnJk_HWdnI/s1600/wwwwww.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="356" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6hQJJbLWjO67DEIsJQR_oAm4MYy13VMrMB10OOlCE_El0fvp9ct2WULTYVg0MvVa7_COsObNx9wUCtLO7Z__-vTdiM7sBaDGwIg48scbz0sdg235-hp22zX1MuHZC2OGmffnJk_HWdnI/s400/wwwwww.gif" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">One drawback to this approach is that the accuracy is also dependent on the tolerances of the integrator's R and C values. Thus in a production environment, slight differences in each component's value change the conversion result and make measurement repeatability quite difficult to attain. To overcome this sensitivity to the component values, the dual-slope integrating architecture is used.<span style="color: #333333;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; color: #333333;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 11.25pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: large;">Dual-Slope ADC Architecture:</span></span></h2><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background: white;">A dual-slope ADC (DS-ADC) integrates an unknown input voltage (V</span>_{<span style="background: white; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 107%;">IN</span>}<span style="background: white;">) for a fixed amount of time (T</span>_{<span style="background: white; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 107%;">INT</span>}<span style="background: white;">), then "de-integrates" (T</span>_{<span style="background: white; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 107%;">DEINT</span>}<span style="background: white;">) using a known reference voltage (V</span>_{<span style="background: white; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 107%;">REF</span>}</span><span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">) for a variable amount of time.</span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifQPiMOks78mU3ew964NnFYFJ4GZuXUbKOhOqzIBKvoKP3pj6G9zV1Tzb-TcC9AGW2MnGjnlZ-evOhQnaBRLqu4z8chqsI3Vv-tP6u2dcARswppivOhmvx-j30zq4Htr5pzgkm4eQ7x1k/s1600/XCC.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="195" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifQPiMOks78mU3ew964NnFYFJ4GZuXUbKOhOqzIBKvoKP3pj6G9zV1Tzb-TcC9AGW2MnGjnlZ-evOhQnaBRLqu4z8chqsI3Vv-tP6u2dcARswppivOhmvx-j30zq4Htr5pzgkm4eQ7x1k/s400/XCC.gif" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">The key advantage of this architecture over the single-slope is that the final conversion result is insensitive to errors in the component values. That is, any error introduced by a component value during the integrate cycle will be cancelled out during the de-integrate phase. In equation form:</span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><br /><br /><span style="background: white;">Vin × T</span></span>_{<span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 107%;">INT</span>}<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">= V</span>_{<span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 107%;">REF</span>}<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">× T</span>_{<span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 107%;">DEINT</span>}<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><br /><br /><span style="background: white;">or</span><br /><br /><span style="background: white;">T</span></span>_{<span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 107%;">DEINT</span>}<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">= T</span>_{<span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 107%;">INT</span>}<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">× (V</span>_{<span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 107%;">IN</span>}<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">/ V</span>_{<span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 107%;">REF</span>}<span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">)</span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><br /><br /><span style="background: white;">From this equation, we see that the de-integrate time is proportional to the ratio of V</span></span>_{<span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 107%;">IN</span>}<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">/ V</span>_{<span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 107%;">REF</span>}<span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div><h3><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Circuit specifications:</span></h3><div class="MsoNormal"></div><ol><li><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">R=10k, C=0.1uF </span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">and clock frequency=1kHz.</span></li><li>Apply a DC input in range of 0V-1V </li><li>Keep the clock frequency at 1kHz square-wave.</li></ol><br /><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="background: white;"></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Now using these formula's calculate the values.<br />Here is the simulation Multisim file.Download it and modify according to your values or you can use same values.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Click on Download button after Entering your E-mail address and the download will start automatically.</span></div><div class="mailmunch-forms-widget-446313"></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div></div><script data-cfasync="false" src="//p201638.clksite.com/adServe/banners?tid=201638_372770_10&tagid=2" type="text/javascript"></script><br /><br />

Electrical, Electrical Concepts, Multisim

Integrating ADC simulation single and dual slope using op amp

Contents: Introduction to Integrating ADC Single slope ADC Dual Slope ADC Multisim Simulation Introduction to Integrating ADC: Integrating a...